American Scripture

American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (1997) is a nonfiction history by Pauline Maier (1938-2013), a historian specializing in the American Revolution. A revisionist historian, Maier uses narrative techniques to bring to life the era in which the Declaration of Independence was created, seeking to demystify this foundational American document and to raise questions about how history is constructed. American Scripture was shortlisted for the National Book Critics Circle Award in 1997.

This study guide uses the Alfred A. Knopf first edition in hardcover, published in 1997.

Content Warning: The source text contains descriptions of racism and enslavement.

Plot Summary

Maier begins with a visit to the National Archives in Washington, DC, where the Declaration of Independence forms part of an exhibition dedicated to “the nation’s vital documents.” These documents, including the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, have recently undergone a meticulous, high-tech conservation effort to assess the causes of their physical deterioration and prevent further degradation. In the exhibition, they are displayed in air-tight glass cases, and Maier compares the effect both to a “shrine” and to the preserved body of Soviet revolutionary leader V.I. Lenin, displayed in a glass case in Moscow’s Red Square. Maier notes that while the documents may be “vital” in the sense that they are important, they are not being treated as “vital” in the sense of being alive—rather, they appear quite dead.

This introduction establishes the necessity of Maier’s work. In the following chapters, she narrates what is effectively a biography of the Declaration of Independence, attempting to strip away the atmosphere of quasi-religious reverence that surrounds it and to explain how that atmosphere came to exist.

In Chapter 1, “Independence,” Maier tells the story of the debates that led to a consensus in 1776 that the colonies had no choice but to declare their independence from Great Britain. Maier emphasizes the contentious and uncertain nature of these debates. Far from a stroke of political inspiration from the heavens, Independence was the result of careful political calculation, compromise, and shifting circumstances.

In Chapter 2, “The ‘Other’ Declarations of Independence,” Maier explores some of the state and local-level political documents that served as precedents for the eventual national Declaration of Independence. These “declarations”—some of which did include the word “declaration” in their titles—differed in tone and content, but they all took their inspiration from English political documents, and taken together, they offer what Maier calls “the best opportunity to hear the voice of the people from the spring of 1776 that we are likely to get” (49).

Chapter 3, “Mr. Jefferson and His Editors,” details the process of adaptation, debate, and revision that produced the Declaration of Independence once Congress decided to break away from Great Britain. While Thomas Jefferson is typically credited as the Declaration’s author—and he did draft the majority of its text—he drew heavily from preexisting sources and worked collaboratively with John Adams and others. Maier emphasizes the degree to which the American Declaration of Independence mimicked English political documents, especially the Declaration of Rights that marked the end of England’s Glorious Revolution in 1689.

Chapter 4, “American Scripture,” traces the centuries-long process by which what began as a political document became something closer to a holy relic. This story begins in the final years of Thomas Jefferson’s life, in the early 1820s. Concerned with his legacy and hoping to leave an inspiring example for the young nation, Jefferson embraced the heroic mythology that had grown up around his generation of revolutionary leaders. When both he and John Adams died on July 4, 1826—the 50th anniversary of the Declaration’s signing—many Americans got the impression that God had signaled his special favor for the document and its creators. A few decades later, Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address brought the Declaration back into public consciousness, reconceptualizing it as an ongoing task: The nation’s purpose, in Lincoln’s framing, was to realize the promise contained in the phrase “all men are created equal.”

In the Epilogue, “Reflecting at the Memorials,” Maier returns to the present day and the scene laid out in the Introduction. She visits the memorials to Jefferson and Lincoln and considers how the Declaration’s public meaning has shifted to suit the needs of the present moment. She concludes by stating the “moral” she promised to state in the Introduction: The Declaration of Independence will remain vital only if the American people discuss, interpret, and apply its principles to effect positive change.